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African Penguin
Spheniscus demersus (Linnaeus, C 1758)
Related taxa:
Species distribution
Geographical range
Value: Resident: inshore islands off Namibia, South Africa; rarely disperses to S Angola, S Mozambique.
Source: africanbirdclub.org
Value: Coasts and islands off Namibia, South Africa and adj. waters
Source: Clements 2021
Value: Breeds on islands off the west coast of South Africa; occurs north to Angola and Natal.
Source: Peter's Checklist of the Birds of the World
Value: coasts and islands off Namibia, South Africa, and adjacent waters
Source: Clements, version 2024
Value: breeds coastal southern Namibia and southern South Africa; ranges to central Namibia and southeastern Africa
Source: Avilist 2025
Maximum latitude of breeding range
Value: -17.07
Units: degrees
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Minimum latitude of breeding range
Value: -35.98
Units: degrees
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Centroid latitude
Value: -31.44
Units: degrees
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Value: -31.44
Units: degrees
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Centroid longitude
Value: 21.46
Units: degrees
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Long-distance dispersal
Value: 1: Yes
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Nomadic, erratic, irruptive, wandering
Value: 1: Yes
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Breeding restricted to island(s)
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Latitudinal range
Value: Tropical-Temperate
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Migration strategy
Value: Partially migratory
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Value: Not a Migrant
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Total range size
Value: 3920000
Units: km2
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value: 330067.23
Units: km2
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Value: > 50000
Units: km2
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Realm
Value: Afrotropical
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Value: Afrotropic
Source: Pigot et al. 2020
Sedentary, largely does not migrate
Value: 1: Yes
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Range and population size
Has restricted range?
Value: N
Source: Birdlife's Worldbird Database
Habitat
Altitude
Value:
Range: 0 - 0
Units: m
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value:
Range: 0 - 50
Units: m
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Altitude range
Value: 50
Units: m
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Number of major habitats used
Value: 2
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Habitat density (1-3)
Value: Open habitats
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Habitat description
Value: Marine
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Value: Marine
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Primary lifestyle
Value: DIURNAL
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value: Terrestrial
Source: Bird et al. 2020
First habitat
Value: SE: Open sea, pelagic
Units: rank
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Second habitat
Value: C: Sea coast, mangrove, estuary, bays, shores, fjords (only sea coast), coastal dune
Units: rank
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Food and feeding habits
Number of major food types consumed
Value: 2
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Source used for diet data
Value: 1
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Main food source
Value: Fish
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Value: VertFishScav
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Ecological Specialization Index
Value: 1.39794
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Foraging niche
Value: Aquatic dive
Source: Pigot et al. 2020
Trophic level
Value: Carnivore
Source: Pigot et al. 2020
Value: Carnivore
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Trophic niche
Value: Aquatic predator
Source: Pigot et al. 2020
Value: Aquatic predator
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Weight of fish in diet
Value: 8
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of fruits in diet
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of invertebrates in diet
Value: 2
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of land vertebrates in diet
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of miscellaneous in diet
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of nectar in diet
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of plant material in diet
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of scavenging in diet
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Weight of seeds in diet
Value: 0
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Sum of the weighted diets
Value: 10
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Body measurements
Bill depth (males)
Value: 2.387
Range: 2.387 - 2.387
Units: cm
Sample: 1
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Bill depth (sex unknown)
Value: 2.4254
Range: 2.32 - 2.71
Units: cm
Sample: 5
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Bill length (females) - Culmen
Value: 5.55
Units: cm
Sample: 25
Source: Lisleland et al. 2007
Bill length (males) - Culmen
Value: 6.05
Units: cm
Sample: 41
Source: Lisleland et al. 2007
Value: 6.143
Range: 6.143 - 6.143
Units: cm
Sample: 1
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Bill length (sex unknown) - Nares to tip
Value: 3.095
Range: 2.65 - 3.7
Units: cm
Sample: 4
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Bill length (sex unknown) - Culmen
Value: 6.1506
Range: 5.84 - 6.4
Units: cm
Sample: 5
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Bill width (males)
Value: 1.074
Range: 1.074 - 1.074
Units: cm
Sample: 1
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Bill width (sex unknown)
Value: 1.0128
Range: 0.91 - 1.12
Units: cm
Sample: 5
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Body mass
Value: 3130.11
Units: g
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Value: 3271.666667
Range: 2900 - 3500
Units: g
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Value: 3130.11
Units: grams
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value: 3017.5
Units: g
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Body mass (females)
Value:
Range: 2960 -
Units: g
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Value: 3200
Range: 2960 - 3200
Units: g
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Value: 3200
Units: grams
Sample: 18
Source: Lisleland et al. 2007
Hatchling body mass
Value: 60
Range: 60 - 60
Units: g
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Body mass (males)
Value: 3600
Range: 3310 - 3600
Units: g
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Value: 3600
Units: grams
Sample: 18
Source: Lisleland et al. 2007
Value:
Range: 3310 -
Units: g
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Body mass (sex unknown)
Value:
Range: 2100 - 3700
Units: g
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Value: 3400
Range: 2900 - 3500
Units: g
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Snout-to-vent length (adults)
Value: 68
Range: 68 - 68
Units: cm
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Tail length (males)
Value: 3.1
Range: 3.1 - 3.1
Units: cm
Sample: 1
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Tail length (sex unknown)
Value: 2.846
Range: 1.44 - 3.68
Units: cm
Sample: 5
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Tarsus length (males)
Value: 2.825
Range: 2.825 - 2.825
Units: cm
Sample: 1
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Tarsus length (sex unknown)
Value: 3.231
Range: 2.825 - 3.48
Units: cm
Sample: 5
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Hand-Wing Index (unknown)
Value: 94.9
Range: 91.7 - 96.9
Units: %
Sample: 4
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Kipps distance (unknown)
Value: 0.36
Range: 0.31 - 0.42
Units: cm
Sample: 4
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Wing length (unknown) - secondary1
Value: 9.49
Range: 9.17 - 9.69
Units: cm
Sample: 4
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Wing length (sex unknown)
Value: 9.85
Range: 9.5 - 10.1
Units: cm
Sample: 4
Source: Tobias et al. 2021
Nest characteristics
Description of physical nest (shape, etc.)
Value: burrow (in ground; also ground cavities)
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Eggs
Egg mass
Value: 103
Units: grams
Source: Lisleland et al. 2007
Value: 103
Range: 103 - 107
Units: g
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Reproduction
Age at first breeding
Value: 4.021190773
Units: years
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value: 4
Units: years
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Age at first breeding (females)
Value: 2
Range: 2 - 2
Units: years
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Clutch size
Value: 2
Source: Lisleland et al. 2007
Value: 2
Range: 2 - 2
Units: n
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Value: 2
Units: n
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value:
Range: 2 - 2
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Colonial species
Value: 1: Yes
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Fledging period
Value:
Range: 70 - 80
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Value: 85
Range: 85 - 85
Units: days
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Number of breeding attempts per year
Value: 1.5
Range: 1.5 - 1.5
Units: n/year
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Sex of bird sitting on eggs/nest
Value: Both
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Incubation period
Value:
Range: 38 -
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Value: 39.5
Range: 39 - 40
Units: days
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Leks
Value: 0: No
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
How nests are connected to supporting objects
Value: Basal
Source: Chia et al. 2023
Location where nests are constructed
Value: Ground
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Value: Ground; Cliff_Bank; Underground
Source: Chia et al. 2023
Nest has an 'artificial' location
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has an 'earth hole' location
Value: yes
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'ground' location
Value: yes
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'rock' location
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'tree hole' location
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'vegetation' location
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'water' location
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest structure
Value: Platform; Primary Cavity; Second Cavity
Source: Chia et al. 2023
Nest has a 'cavity' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'clearing' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'cup' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'dome' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'dome-and-tube' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has an 'excavation' structure
Value: yes
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'excavation-with-nest' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'mound' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'none' structure
Value: unknown
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'platform' structure
Value: unknown
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'ring' structure
Value: no
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Nest has a 'scrape' structure
Value: yes
Source: Sheard et al. 2024
Parasitic breeding
Value: False
Source: Chia et al. 2023
Survival
Adult annual survival rate
Value: 0.864551745
Units: annual rate
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value: 81
Units: annual rate
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Average generation length (years)
Value: 9.651411739
Range: 9.51441097 - 10.40408397
Units: years
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value: 10.13
Units: years
Source: Birdlife 2024
Maximum age
Value: 11
Range: 11 - 11
Units: years
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Value: 25.40367705
Units: years
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Value: 27.3
Units: years
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Average survival
Value: 11
Units: years
Source: Myhrvold et al. 2015
Breeding success (% nests fledging young)
Value:
Range: 25 - 50
Units: percent
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Population decline over 10 years
Value: 26%
Range: 21% - 26%
Units: percent
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Population decline over 3 generation
Value: 50%
Range: 50% - 50%
Units: percent
Source: Bird et al. 2020
Social behaviour
Pairs and family groups
Value: 0: No
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Social flocks
Value: 0: No
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Pairs and family groups
Value: 0: No
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Solitary
Value: 0: No
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
Behaviour
Inability to fly
Value: Yes
Source: Sekercioglu et al. 2025
References
- AviList Core Team. 2025. AviList: The Global Avian Checklist, v2025. https://doi.org/10.2173/avilist.v2025 https://www.avilist.org/checklist/v2025/
- Bird, Jeremy & Martin, Robert & Akcakaya, H. Resit & Gilroy, James & Burfield, Ian & Garnett, Stephen & Symes, Andy & Taylor, Joe & Sekercioglu, Cagan & Butchart, Stuart. (2020). Generation lengths of the world's birds and their implications for extinction risk. Conservation Biology. 34. 10.1111/cobi.13486. https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/cobi.13486
- BirdLife International. 2024. Generation lengths of the world's birds. Version 2 (November 2020). Available from https://datazone.birdlife.org https://datazone.birdlife.org//species/genlength
- Birdlife. 2005. Worldbird Database.
- Catherine Sheard, Sally E. Street, Susan D. Healy, Camille A. Troisi, Andrew D. Clark, Antonia Yovcheva, Alexis Trébaol, Karina Vanadzina, Kevin N. Lala. 2024. Nest traits for the world's birds. Global Ecology and Biogeography 33(2):206-214. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/geb.13783
- Chia, Stephanie Yuan, Yi-Ting Fang, Yi-Ting Su, Pei-Yu Tsai, Chia Hsieh, Shu-Han Tsao, Jia-Yang Juang, Chih-Ming Hung, and Mao-Ning Tuanmu. 2023. “A Global Database of Bird Nest Traits.” Scientific Data 10 (1): 923. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-023-02837-1. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02837-1
- Clements, J. F., P. C. Rasmussen, T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, T. A. Fredericks, J. A. Gerbracht, D. Lepage, A. Spencer, S. M. Billerman, B. L. Sullivan, M. Smith, and C. L. Wood. 2024. The eBird/Clements checklist of Birds of the World: v2024. Downloaded from https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/ https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/
- Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, S. M. Billerman, T. A. Fredericks, J. A. Gerbracht, D. Lepage, B. L. Sullivan, and C. L. Wood. 2021. The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: v2021. Downloaded from https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/ https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/
- Lislevand T, Figuerola J, Székely T. 2007. Avian body sizes in relation to fecundity, mating system, display behavior, and resource sharing. Ecology 88:1605. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1890/06-2054
- P. Myhrvold, Nathan; Baldridge, Elita; Chan, Benjamin; Sivam, Dhileep; L. Freeman, Daniel; Ernest, S. K. Morgan (2016): An amniote life-history database to perform comparative analyses with birds, mammals, and reptiles. Wiley. Collection. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.3308127.v1 https://figshare.com/collections/An_amniote_life-history_database_to_perform_comparative_analyses_with_birds_mammals_and_reptiles/3308127
- Peter Lack. 2008. African Bird Club List of African Birds. http://africanbirdclub.org/resources/checklist.html
- Peters, J. L. 1931-1987. Check-list of Birds of the World. 15 vols. + Index. Harvard Press. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/14581
- Pigot, A.L., Sheard, C., Miller, E.T. et al. Macroevolutionary convergence connects morphological form to ecological function in birds. Nat Ecol Evol 4, 230–239 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-1070-4
- Şekercioğlu, Ç.H., Kittelberger, K.D., Mota, F.M.M. et al. BIRDBASE: A Global Dataset of Avian Biogeography, Conservation, Ecology and Life History Traits. Sci Data 12, 1558 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-025-05615-3
- Tobias, J. et al. 2022. AVONET: morphological, ecological and geographical data for all birds. Ecology Letters. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13898 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ele.13898
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